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Decorative chrome plating on a motorcycle

Chrome plating (less commonly chromium plating) is a technique of electroplating a thin layer of chromium onto a metal object. The after product of chrome plating is called chrome. The chromed layer can be decorative, provide corrosion resistance, ease cleaning procedures, or increase surface hardness. Sometimes, a less expensive imitator of chrome may be used for aesthetic purposes.

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Process[edit]

Chrome plating a component typically includes these stages:

Degreasing to remove heavy soiling
Manual cleaning to remove all residual traces of dirt and surface impurities
Various pretreatments depending on the substrate
Placement into the chrome plating vat, where it is allowed to warm to solution temperature
Application of plating current for the required time to attain the desired thickness

There are many variations to this process, depending on the type of substrate being plated. Different substrates need different etching solutions, such as hydrochloric, hydrofluoric, and sulfuric acids. Ferric chloride is also popular for the etching of nimonic alloys. Sometimes the component enters the chrome plating vat while electrically live. Sometimes the component has a conforming anode made from lead/tin or platinized titanium. A typical hard chrome vat plates at about 1 mil (25 μm) per hour.

Various finishing and buffing processes are used in preparing components for decorative chrome plating. The chrome plating chemicals are very toxic. Disposal of chemicals is regulated in most countries.

Some common industry specifications governing the chrome plating process are AMS 2460, AMS 2406, and MIL-STD-1501.

Hexavalent chromium[edit]

Hexavalent chromium plating, also known as hex-chrome, Cr⁶⁺, and chrome (VI) plating, uses chromium trioxide (also known as chromic anhydride) as the main ingredient. Hexavalent chromium plating solution is used for decorative and hard plating, along with bright dipping of copper alloys, chromic acid anodizing, and chromate conversion coating.^[1]

A typical hexavalent chromium plating process is: (1) activation bath, (2) chromium bath, (3) rinse, and (4) rinse. The activation bath is typically a tank of chromic acid with a reverse current run through it. This etches the work-piece surface and removes any scale. In some cases the activation step is done in the chromium bath. The chromium bath is a mixture of chromium trioxide (CrO₃) and sulfuric acid (sulfate, SO₄), the ratio of which varies greatly between 75:1 to 250:1 by weight. This results in an extremely acidic bath (pH 0). The temperature and current density in the bath affect the brightness and final coverage. For decorative coating the temperature ranges from 35 to 45 °C (100 to 110 °F), but for hard coating it ranges from 50 to 65 °C (120 to 150 °F). Temperature is also dependent on the current density, because a higher current density requires a higher temperature. Finally, the whole bath is agitated to keep the temperature steady and achieve a uniform deposition.^[1]

Disadvantages[edit]

One functional disadvantage of hexavalent chromium plating is low cathode efficiency, which results in bad throwing power. This means it leaves a non-uniform coating, with more on edges and less in inside corners and holes. To overcome this problem the part may be over-plated and ground to size, or auxiliary anodes may be used around the hard-to-plate areas.^[1]

From a health standpoint, hexavalent chromium is the most toxic form of chromium. In the U.S., the Environmental Protection Agency regulates it heavily. The EPA lists hexavalent chromium as a hazardous air pollutant because it is a human carcinogen, a 'priority pollutant' under the Clean Water Act, and a 'hazardous constituent' under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act. Due to its low cathodic efficiency and high solution viscosity, a toxic mist of water and hexavalent chromium is released from the bath. Wet scrubbers are used to control these emissions. The discharge from the wet scrubbers is treated to precipitate the chromium from the solution because it cannot remain in the waste water.^[1]

Maintaining a bath surface tension less than 35 dynes/cm requires a frequent cycle of treating the bath with a wetting agent and confirming the effect on surface tension.^[2] Traditionally, surface tension is measured with a stalagmometer. This method is, however, tedious and suffers from inaccuracy (errors up to 22 dynes/cm have been reported), and is dependent on the user's experience and capabilities.^[3]

Additional toxic waste created from hexavalent chromium baths include lead chromates, which form in the bath because lead anodes are used. Barium is also used to control the sulfate concentration, which leads to the formation of barium sulfate (BaSO₄).^[1]

Trivalent chromium[edit]

Trivalent chromium plating, also known as tri-chrome, Cr³⁺, and chrome (III) plating, uses chromium sulfate or chromium chloride as the main ingredient. Trivalent chromium plating is an alternative to hexavalent chromium in certain applications and thicknesses (e.g. decorative plating).^[1]

A trivalent chromium plating process is similar to the hexavalent chromium plating process, except for the bath chemistry and anode composition. There are three main types of trivalent chromium bath configurations:^[1]

A chloride- or sulfate-based electrolyte bath using graphite or composite anodes, plus additives to prevent the oxidation of trivalent chromium to the anodes.
A sulfate-based bath that uses lead anodes surrounded by boxes filled with sulfuric acid (known as shielded anodes), which keeps the trivalent chromium from oxidizing at the anodes.
A sulfate-based bath that uses insoluble catalytic anodes, which maintains an electrode potential that prevents oxidation.

The trivalent chromium-plating process can plate the workpieces at a similar temperature, rate and hardness, as compared to hexavalent chromium. Plating thickness ranges from 0.005 to 0.05 mils (0.13 to 1.27 μm).^[1]

Advantages and disadvantages[edit]

The functional advantages of trivalent chromium are higher cathode efficiency and better throwing power. Better throwing power means better production rates. Less energy is required because of the lower current densities required. The process is more robust than hexavalent chromium because it can withstand current interruptions.^[1]

From a health standpoint, trivalent chromium is intrinsically less toxic than hexavalent chromium. Because of the lower toxicity it is not regulated as strictly, which reduces overhead costs. Other health advantages include higher cathode efficiencies, which lead to less chromium air emissions; lower concentration levels, resulting in less chromium waste and anodes that do not decompose.^[1]

One of the disadvantages when the process was first introduced was that decorative customers disapproved of the color differences. Companies now use additives to adjust the color. In hard coating applications, the corrosion resistance of thicker coatings is not quite as good as it is with hexavalent chromium. The cost of the chemicals is greater, but this is usually offset by greater production rates and lower overhead costs. In general, the process must be controlled more closely than in hexavalent chromium plating, especially with respect to metallic impurities. This means processes that are hard to control, such as barrel plating, are much more difficult using a trivalent chromium bath.^[1]

Types[edit]

Decorative[edit]

Art Deco portfolio with chrome-plated cover, ca 1925

Decorative chrome is designed to be aesthetically pleasing and durable. Thicknesses range from 0.002 to 0.02 mils (0.05 to 0.5 μm), however, they are usually between 0.005 and 0.01 mils (0.13 and 0.25 μm). The chromium plating is usually applied over bright nickel plating. Typical base materials include steel, aluminium, plastic, copper alloys, and zinc alloys.^[1] Decorative chrome plating is also very corrosion resistant and is often used on car parts, tools and kitchen utensils.

Hard[edit]

Hard chrome plating

Hard chrome, also known as industrial chrome, chrome gona, or engineered chrome, is used to reduce friction, improve durability through abrasion tolerance and wear resistance in general, minimize galling or seizing of parts, expand chemical inertness to include a broader set of conditions (such as oxidation resistance), and bulking material for worn parts to restore their original dimensions.^[4] It is very hard, measuring between 65 and 69 HRC (also based on the base metal's hardness). Hard chrome tends to be thicker than decorative chrome, with standard thicknesses in nonsalvage applications ranging from 0.02 to 0.04 mm (20 to 40 μm),^[5] but it can be an order of magnitude thicker for extreme wear resistance requirements, in such cases 0.1 mm (100 μm) or thicker provides optimal results. Unfortunately, such thicknesses emphasize the limitations of the process, which are overcome by plating extra thickness then grinding down and lapping to meet requirements or to improve the overall aesthetics of the 'chromed' piece.^[1] Increasing plating thickness amplifies surface defects and roughness in proportional severity, because hard chrome does not have a leveling effect.^[6] Pieces that are not ideally shaped in reference to electric field geometries (nearly every piece sent in for plating, except spheres and egg shaped objects) require even thicker plating to compensate for non-uniform deposition, and much of it is wasted when grinding the piece back to desired dimensions.

Modern 'engineered coatings' do not suffer such drawbacks, which often price hard chrome out due to labor costs alone. Hard chrome replacement technologies outperform hard chrome in wear resistance, corrosion resistance, and cost. Rockwell hardness 80 is not extraordinary for such materials. Using spray deposition, uniform thickness that often requires no further polishing or machining is a standard feature of modern engineered coatings. These coatings are often composites of polymers, metals, and ceramic powders or fibers as proprietary embodiments protected by patents or as trade secrets, and thus are usually known by brand names.^[7]

Hard chromium plating is subject to different types of quality requirements depending on the application; for instance, the plating on hydraulic piston rods are tested for corrosion resistance with a salt spray test.

Automotive use[edit]

Most bright decorative items affixed to cars are referred to as 'chrome', meaning steel that has undergone several plating processes to endure the temperature changes and weather that a car is subject to outdoors (although the term then passed on to cover any similar-looking shiny decorative auto parts, including silver plastic trim pieces in casual terminology). Triple plating is the most expensive and durable process, which involves plating the steel first with copper and then nickel before the chromium plating is applied.

Prior to the application of chrome in the 1920s, nickel electroplating was used. In the short production run prior to the US entry into the Second World War, the government banned plating to save chromium and automobile manufacturers painted the decorative pieces in a complementary color. In the last years of the Korean War, the US contemplated banning chrome in favor of several cheaper processes (such as plating with zinc and then coating with shiny plastic).

In 2007, a Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive (RoHS) was issued banning several toxic substances for use in the automotive industry in Europe, including hexavalent chromium, which is used in chrome plating. However, chrome plating is metal and contains no hexavalent chromium after it is rinsed, so chrome plating is not banned.

References[edit]

^ ^a^b^c^d^e^f^g^hⁱ^j^k^l^mPollution Prevention Technology Profile Trivalent Chromium Replacements for Hexavalent Chromium Plating(PDF), Northeast Waste Management Officials’ Association, 2003-10-18, archived from the original(PDF) on 2011-07-20.
^'Archived copy'. Archived from the original on 2010-11-30. Retrieved 2010-08-20.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
^'Surface Technology Environmental Resource Center - STERC'. Archived from the original on 2010-07-07. Retrieved 2010-08-20.
^'QQ-C-320B'(PDF). everyspec.com. Archived(PDF) from the original on 16 August 2017. Retrieved 3 May 2018.
^'Design Recommendations For Hard Chrome Plating'. U.S. CHrome Corporation. Archived from the original on 2017-08-16. Retrieved 16 August 2017.
^Degarmo, E. Paul; Black, J T.; Kohser, Ronald A. (2003), Materials and Processes in Manufacturing (9th ed.), Wiley, p. 793, ISBN0-471-65653-4.
^Vernhes, Luc (2013). 'Alternatives for hard chromium plating: Nanostructured coatings for severe-service valves'. Materials Chemistry and Physics. 140 (2–3): 522–528. doi:10.1016/j.matchemphys.2013.03.065.

The solution: structured and actionable issue reporting #

To find a better solution to the problems we discovered, we first started thinking about the requirements and collected them in a Design Doc.

Our goal is to present issues in a way that clearly explains the problem, and how to fix it. From our design process we realised that each issue should contain the following four parts:

Title
Description
Links to affected resources within DevTools
And a link to further guidance

For the title, we want it to be short and precise to help developers understand the core problem, and often already hints at the fix. For example, a cookie issue now simply reads:

Mark cross-site cookies as Secure to allow setting them in cross-site contexts

Every issue contains more detailed information in a description, which explains what happened, gives actionable advice on how to fix it, and links to other panels inside DevTools to understand the problem in context. We also provide links to in-depth articles on web.dev to enable web developers to learn about the topic in greater detail.

An important part of each issue is the affected resources section, which links to other parts of DevTools and makes it easy to investigate further. For the cookie issue example, there should be a list of network requests that triggered the issue, and clicking on the request directly takes you to the Network panel. We hope that this is not only convenient, but also reinforces which panels and tools inside DevTools can be used to debug a certain kind of issue.

Thinking about developer interaction with the Issues tab long-term, we imagine the following evolution of developer interaction:

When encountering a particular issue for the first time, a web developer would read the article to understand the issue in-depth.
When encountering the issue the second time, we hope that the issue description would be enough to remind the developer of what the issue was about, and allow them to immediately investigate and take action to resolve it.
After encountering an issue for a couple of times, we hope that the issue title is enough for a developer to recognize the type of issue.

Another important aspect we wanted to improve is aggregation. For example, if the same cookie caused the same problem multiple times, we wanted to report the cookie only once. Install vim mac terminal for windows 7. Besides reducing the number of messages considerably, this often helps to identify the root cause of an issue more quickly.

The implementation #

With those requirements in mind, the team started to look into how to implement the new feature. Projects for Chrome DevTools usually span three different areas:

Chromium, the open-source project written in C++ behind Google Chrome
DevTools frontend, the JavaScript implementation of Chrome DevTools
Chrome DevTools Protocol (CDP), the layer connecting the two

Implementation was then comprised of three tasks:

Inside Chromium, we had to identify the components that have the information we want to surface and make that information accessible to the DevTools Protocol without compromising speed or security.
We then needed to design the Chrome DevTools Protocol (CDP) to define the API that exposes the information to clients, such as the DevTools frontend.
Finally, we needed to implement a component in DevTools frontend that requests the information from the browser via CDP and displays it in an appropriate UI such that developers can easily interpret and interact with the information.

For the browser side, we first looked into how console messages were handled, because their behavior is very similar to what we had in mind for issues. CodeSearch is usually a good starting point for explorations like these. It allows you to search and explore the whole source code of the Chromium project online. That way, we learned about the implementation of console messages and could build up a parallel, but more structured way around the requirements we collected for the issues.

The work here is especially challenging because of all the security implications we always have to keep in mind. The Chromium project goes a long way to separate things into different processes and have them only communicate through controlled communication channels to prevent information leaks. Issues may contain sensitive information, so we have to take care to not send that information to a part of the browser that shouldn't know about it.

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In DevTools frontend #

DevTools itself is a web application written in JavaScript and CSS. It's a lot like many other web applications - except that it's been around for more than 10 years. And of course its back-end is basically a direct communication channel to the browser: the Chrome DevTools Protocol.

For the Issues tab, we first thought about user stories and what developers would have to do to resolve an issue. Our ideas mostly evolved around having the Issues tab as a central starting point for investigations that linked people to the panels that show more detailed information. We decided to put the Issues tab with the other tabs at the bottom of DevTools so it can stay open while a developer interacts with another DevTools component, such as the Network or the Application panel.

With that in mind, our UX designer understood what we were aiming at, and prototyped the following initial proposals:

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After a lot of discussion around the best solution, we started implementing the design and reiterating decisions to gradually arrive at what the Issues tab looks like today.

Another very important factor was the discoverability of the Issues tab. In the past, many great Devtools features were not discoverable without the developer knowing what specifically to look for. For the Issues tab, we decided to highlight issues in multiple different areas to make sure developers wouldn't miss important issues.

We decided to add a notification to the console panel, because certain console messages are now removed in favor of issues. Happy wheels demo for school. We also added an icon to the warnings and errors counter in the top right of the DevTools window.

Finally, the Issues tab not only links to other DevTools panels, but resources that are related to an issue also link back to the Issues tab.

In the protocol #

The communication between the frontend and the backend works over a protocol called Chromium DevTools Protocol (CDP). The CDP can be thought of as the back-end of the web app that is Chrome DevTools. The CDP is subdivided into multiple domains and every domain contains a number of commands and events. Csi miami game free. download full version.

For the Issues tab, we decided to add a new event to the Audits domain that triggers whenever a new issue is encountered. To make sure that we can also report on issues that arise while DevTools is not yet opened, the Audits domain stores the most recent issues and dispatches them as soon as DevTools connects. DevTools then collects all those issues and aggregates them.

The CDP also enables other protocol clients, such as Puppeteer, to receive and process issues. We hope the structured issue information sent over the CDP will enable and simplify integration into existing continuous integration infrastructure. This way, issues can be detected and fixed even before the page is deployed!

Future #

First of all, a lot more messages have to move from the console to the Issues tab. This will take some time, especially because we want to provide clear, actionable documentation for every new issue we add. We hope that in the future developers will go looking for issues in the Issues tab instead of the console!

Furthermore, we are thinking how to integrate issues from other sources besides the Chromium back-end into the Issues tab.

We are looking into ways to keep the Issues tab tidy and improve usability. Searching, filtering, and better aggregation are on our list for this year. To structure the increasing number of reported issues, we are in the process of introducing issue categories that would, for example, make it possible to only show issues that are about upcoming deprecations. We are also thinking about adding a snooze feature, that a developer can use to hide issues temporarily.

To keep issues actionable, we want to make it easier to discover which part of a page triggered an issue. In particular, we are thinking about ways to distinguish and filter issues that are genuinely from your page (i.e. first-party) from issues that are triggered by resources you embed, but are not directly under your control (such as an ad network). As a first step, it will be possible to hide third-party cookie issues in Chrome 86.

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If you have any suggestions to improve the Issues tab, let us know by filing a bug!

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